Blending conservation and commerce

South African farmers once saw wild animals as competition for livestock and intruders in their landscapes. Today, they manage them as valuable assets. This shift to ‘wilding the farm or farming the wild’ has transformed how wild animals are viewed in the last decades, with significant implications for conservation and wildlife economies. In 2008, historian Jane Carruthers documented how game ranching blended conservation with commerce, reshaping landscapes and livelihoods. Her article, 'Wilding the Farm or Farming the Wild?' explored how game ranching appeared as a pragmatic response to ecological and economic challenges. In this short article, we revisit Carruthers’ insights and explore their continued relevance today, examining how game ranching has evolved, the challenges it faces, and its potential role in shaping the future of wildlife conservation and rural economies in South Africa. Is the concept of conserving wildlife through game ranching a practical solution or an excuse for an enterprise with little ecological contribution? Let's get into it...

From cattle to wildlife: A changing landscape

Livestock dominated South Africa’s rural economy historically, but overgrazing and arid conditions led to land degradation. By the 1960s, studies revealed that game species like kudu and springbok were better suited to marginal agricultural lands. Ecologists and pioneering farmers began “wilding” their properties, and key policy changes, such as granting landowners ownership of wildlife through legislation like the Game Theft Act (1991) and the removal of agricultural subsidies, fuelled the shift. As a result, game ranching expanded rapidly. By the 2000s, an estimated 1.7 million large wild mammals roamed former farmland, up from about 340,000 in the 1960s. Recent peer-reviewed studies estimated that these numbers have now increased to 4.7–7.3 million herbivores, with wildlife ranches covering 14-17% of the country.

The growth of an ‘improbable’ industry

Carruthers’ research showed that game ranching succeeded despite initial scepticism. Scientists, as early as the 1960s, demonstrated that wildlife could thrive on land unsuitable for cattle, producing sustainable meat and ecotourism opportunities. The government’s recognition of wildlife as an economic asset incentivised landowners, turning game into a marketable resource rather than a nuisance. By 2008, private game ranches had multiplied, creating a patchwork of semi-wild landscapes outside formal parks. These ranches boosted conservation efforts while generating revenue through hunting, tourism, and live animal sales.

Audience at a game auction Nyala bull with tag on its ear

Image captions: (1) Game auction and (2) Nyala bull for auction. 

Image credits: Andrew Taylor

Why this still matters

Fast forward to the present, and Carruthers’ insights remain relevant. Game ranching has grown into a multi-billion-rand industry, surpassing the dairy and sugar sectors. South Africa now has nearly 9,000 wildlife ranches, with neighbouring Namibia adopting a similar model, and emerging industries in Zambia and Botswana. Zimbabwe also had a significant wildlife ranching sector before its major political upheavals commencing in the early 2000s. Today, there is growing interest in revitalising this sector, as reflected in Zimbabwe’s 2023 Biodiversity Economy Report, which emphasised the potential of sustainable wildlife economies for biodiversity conservation and rural development. 

Thanks to private conservation efforts in South Africa, species like bontebok, black wildebeest, and rhinos have rebounded, demonstrating the ecological benefits of game ranching. However, the industry has faced challenges. Post-policy changes, breeding high-value and rare colour variants, drove a speculative boom, with auction turnover peaking at over R1.8 billion in 2014. But by 2018, this had crashed to R750 million as markets became saturated and prices plummeted. Shifting international regulations on trophy hunting and the COVID-19 pandemic tested the sector’s resilience. Yet, game ranching remains adaptable, diversifying into ecotourism, meat production, and conservation partnerships. Government initiatives, such as South Africa’s National Biodiversity Economy Strategy and the Game Meat Strategy, underscore a commitment to expanding wildlife-based industries.

The debate: Wilding or farming?

With success comes scrutiny. Is game ranching truly restoring wild landscapes, or is it the domestication of wild animals as it happened with cows and goats in the last centuries? Some critics argue that intensive breeding, selective genetics, and enclosures blur the line between wild and domesticated. For example, the classification of certain game species under South Africa’s Animal Improvement Act in 2019 raised concerns about the long-term genetic integrity of wildlife. Another emerging concern is the potential for zoonotic disease transmission as game meat production expands. The One Health approach, which integrates human, animal, and environmental health, is increasingly being applied to game meat safety and disease monitoring (TRAFFIC). The interaction between wildlife, livestock, and people in game ranching environments may require stronger biosecurity measures to prevent disease spillover, particularly in the wake of global pandemics where wildlife trade has come under scrutiny.

Land use and social equity are also contentious issues. While game ranching has revitalised conservation, fenced estates sometimes limit access for local communities. Historically and presently, land used for wildlife conservation reflects past injustices of land dispossession and is controlled by a privileged few, raising concerns about fair benefits. Ongoing discussions and research focus on the South African National Park’s Wildlife Economy Programme, which aims to foster more inclusive growth in the wildlife economy. Community conservancies and joint ventures are emerging as solutions, ensuring that rural populations also share in the economic rewards of the wildlife economy.

The road ahead

Carruthers concluded her 2008 paper with a forward-looking observation: "While the transfer of land from traditional agriculture and domestic stock to more nature-based wildlife pursuits is likely to accelerate with climate change and political uncertainty around land issues..., some experts warn that game ranching for ecotourism and live sales might be reaching saturation point, and… they advocate devoting more attention to expanding the market for venison and biltong, as well as to encouraging trophy hunting." This insight remains highly relevant today.

To sustain its success, game ranching must strike a balance between economic viability and ecological integrity. Policymakers should support sustainable models by finalising game meat regulations, incentivising extensive as opposed to intensive ranching practices, and fostering community-inclusive conservation efforts. Conservationists, rather than opposing game ranching, can guide best practices that maintain biodiversity and ethical management.

Future innovations could include carbon credits for land management practices that retain above- or below-ground carbon, certification programmes for sustainable ranching, and expanded community participation in wildlife enterprises. Game ranching has already proven that wildlife can survive outside national parks by demonstrating its market value. The next challenge is ensuring that this model remains ecologically sound, socially equitable, and resilient in the face of climate change and economic shifts.

Carruthers’ 2008 question: Are we wilding the farm or farming the wild?, remains relevant today. The answer lies in how we shape the industry moving forward. With inclusive approaches and smart policy, game ranching could help rewrite the story of African conservation to be economically viable, ecologically resilient, and socially just.